A superpower is a state A sovereign state is a political association with effective internal and external sovereignty over a geographic area and population which is not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. While in abstract terms a sovereign state can exist without being recognised by other sovereign states, unrecognised states will often find it hard to with a dominant position in the international system International relations or International studies (IS) represents the study of foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), and multinational which has the ability to influence events and its own interests and project power on a worldwide scale Power in international relations is defined in several different ways. Political scientists, historians, and practitioners of international relations have used the following concepts of political power: to protect those interests. A superpower is traditionally considered to be one step higher than a great power A great power is a nation or state that has the ability to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess economic, military, diplomatic, and cultural strength, which may cause other smaller nations to consider the opinions of great powers before taking actions of their own. International relations theorists have.

Alice Lyman Miller (Professor of National Security Affairs at the Naval Postgraduate School The Naval Postgraduate School is an accredited research university operated by the United States Navy. Located in Monterey, California, it grants both master's degrees and doctoral degrees. The school also offers research fellowship opportunities at the postdoctoral level through the National Research Council research associateship program), defines a superpower as "a country that has the capacity to project dominating power and influence anywhere in the world, and sometimes, in more than one region of the globe at a time, and so may plausibly attain the status of global hegemon Hegemony is the political, economic, ideological or cultural power exerted by a dominant group over other groups, regardless of the explicit consent of the latter. While initially referring to the political dominance of certain ancient Greek city-states over their neighbors, the term has come to be used in a variety of other contexts, in."^[1]

It was a term first applied in 1944 to the United States ^ b. English is the de facto language of American government and the sole language spoken at home by 80% of Americans age five and older. Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language, the Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the Russian: Союз Советских Социалистических Республик (help·info), tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, IPA [sɐˈjʊs sɐˈvʲeʦkʲɪx səʦɪ, and the British Empire The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom, that had originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height it was the largest empire in history and, for over a. Following World War II Albania · Australia · Austria · Azerbaijan · Belarus · Belgium · Brazil · Bulgaria · Burma · Cambodia · Canada · Ceylon (Sri Lanka) · Channel Islands · China · Czechoslovakia · Denmark · Dutch East Indies · Egypt · Estonia · Finland · France · Germany · Gibraltar · Greece · Greenland · Hong Kong · Hungary · Iceland ·, as the British Empire transformed itself into the Commonwealth The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and previously as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states. All but two of these countries were formerly part of the British Empire and its territories became independent, the Soviet Union and the United States generally came to be regarded as the only two superpowers, and confronted each other in the Cold War The Cold War was the continuing state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition existing after World War II (1939–1945), primarily between the Soviet Union and its satellite states, and the powers of the Western world, particularly the United States. Although the primary participants' military forces never.

After the Cold War, the most common belief held is that only the United States fulfilled the criteria to be considered a superpower,^[2] although it is a matter of debate whether it is a hegemon Hegemony is the political, economic, ideological or cultural power exerted by a dominant group over other groups, regardless of the explicit consent of the latter. While initially referring to the political dominance of certain ancient Greek city-states over their neighbors, the term has come to be used in a variety of other contexts, in or if it is a besieged global power.^[3] Brazil Brazil (pronounced /brəˈzɪl/ ; Portuguese: Brasil, IPA: [bɾaˈziw]), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: República Federativa do Brasil, listen (help·info)), is the largest country in South America and the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical, China b. ^ Simple characterizations of the political structure since the 1980s are no longer possible,^[4] the European Union The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 member states which are located primarily in Europe. Committed to regional integration, the EU was established by the Treaty of Maastricht in 1993 upon the foundations of the European Communities. With over 500 million citizens, the EU combined generated an estimated 28% share (US$ 16.5, India India, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with 1.18 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Mainland India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the, and Russia Russia (pronounced /ˈrʌʃə/ ; Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya, pronounced [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya, pronounced [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈraʦəjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal^[5][6] are also thought to have the potential of achieving superpower A number of states have been speculated to be, or to be in the process of turning into, a superpower at some point of the 21st century. Presently, it is widely considered that only the United States currently fulfills the criteria to be considered a superpower. Among the most commonly mentioned as being potential superpowers are Brazil, China, the status within the 21st century,^[7] though China is seen as being the more probable candidate.

Others doubt the existence of superpowers in the post Cold War era altogether, stating that today's complex global marketplace and the rising interdependency between the world's nations has made the concept of a superpower an idea of the past and that the world is now multipolar Polarity in international relations is any of the various ways in which power is distributed within the international system. It describes the nature of the international system at any given period of time. One generally distinguishes four types of systems: unipolarity, bipolarity, tripolarity, and multipolarity, for four or more centers of power.^{[8][9][10][11]}

Application of the term

The term superpower was used to describe nations with greater than great power A great power is a nation or state that has the ability to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess economic, military, diplomatic, and cultural strength, which may cause other smaller nations to consider the opinions of great powers before taking actions of their own. International relations theorists have status as early as 1944, but only gained its specific meaning with regard to the United States ^ b. English is the de facto language of American government and the sole language spoken at home by 80% of Americans age five and older. Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language, the British Empire The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom, that had originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height it was the largest empire in history and, for over a and the Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the Russian: Союз Советских Социалистических Республик (help·info), tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, IPA [sɐˈjʊs sɐˈvʲeʦkʲɪx səʦɪ after WWII Albania · Australia · Austria · Azerbaijan · Belarus · Belgium · Brazil · Bulgaria · Burma · Cambodia · Canada · Ceylon (Sri Lanka) · Channel Islands · China · Czechoslovakia · Denmark · Dutch East Indies · Egypt · Estonia · Finland · France · Germany · Gibraltar · Greece · Greenland · Hong Kong · Hungary · Iceland ·. This was because the United States and the Soviet Union had proved themselves to be capable of casting great influence in global politics.

There have been attempts to apply the term superpower retrospectively, and sometimes very loosely, to a variety of past entities such as Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. The civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh, and it developed over the next three millennia. Its history, Ancient Greece Ancient Greece is the civilization belonging to the period of Greek history lasting from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to 146 BC and the Roman conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth. At the center of this time period is Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC, at first under Athenian, China China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity^[12], India India, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with 1.18 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Mainland India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the^[12], the Persian Empire The Achaemenid Empire , also known as the Persian Empire, was the successor state of the Median Empire, ruling over significant portions of what would become Greater Iran. The Persian and the Median Empire taken together are also known as the Medo-Persian Empire, which encompassed the combined territories of several earlier empires, the Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire was a regime that lasted from 1299 to 1923, the Roman Empire The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean. The term is used to describe the Roman state during and after the time of the first emperor, Augustus,^[13][14] the Mongol Empire The Mongol Empire (Mongolian: Монголын Эзэнт Гүрэн , Mongolyn Ezent Güren or Их Mонгол улс, Ikh Mongol Uls) was an empire from the 13th and 14th century spanning from Eastern Europe across Asia. It is the largest contiguous empire in the history of the world. It emerged from the unification of Mongol and Turkic tribes, Portuguese Empire It was also the longest-lived of the modern European colonial empires, spanning almost six centuries, from the capture of Ceuta in 1415 to the handover of Macau in 1999, the Spanish Empire Territories of the Portuguese empire during the Iberian Union . Territories lost before or due to the Treaties of Utrecht-Baden (1713–1714). Territories lost before or during the Spanish American wars of independence (1811–1828). Territories lost following the Spanish-American War (1898–1899). Territories granted independence during the^[15][16], France France (pronounced /ˈfrænts/ frantss or /ˈfrɑːnts/ frahnts; French pronunciation (help·info): [fʁɑ̃s]), officially the French Republic (French: République française, pronounced: [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a state in Western Europe with several of its overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian,,^[17][18] the Dutch Republic The Dutch Republic — officially known as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands , the Republic of the United Netherlands, or the Republic of the Seven United Provinces (Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Provinciën) — was a republic in Europe existing from 1581 to 1795, preceding the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands. Alternative names and the British Empire The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom, that had originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height it was the largest empire in history and, for over a.

Recognition by historians of these older states as superpowers may focus on various superlative traits exhibited by them. For example, at its peak the British Empire was the largest in history An empire involves the extension of a state's sovereignty over external territories. For example, first the Spanish Empire and then the British Empire were called "the empires on which the sun never sets", because of their territories and possessions around the globe. This article provides a list of the largest empires in world history with 1 in every 4 people in the world living under its flag.

Origin

The term in its current political meaning was coined by Dutch-American geostrategist Nicholas Spykman in a series of lectures in 1943 about the potential shape of a new post-war world order. This formed the foundation for the book The Geography of the Peace, which referred primarily to the unmatched maritime global supremacy of the United Kingdom and United States as essential for peace and prosperity in the world.

A year later, William T.R. Fox, an American foreign policy professor, elaborated on the concept in the book The Superpowers: The United States, Britain and the Soviet Union – Their Responsibility for Peace (1944), which spoke of the global reach of a super-empowered nation.^[19] Fox used the word Superpower to identify a new category of power able to occupy the highest status in a world in which, as the war then raging demonstrated, states could challenge and fight each other on a global scale.

According to him, there were (at that moment) three states that were superpowers: Britain The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom, that had originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height it was the largest empire in history and, for over a, the United States ^ b. English is the de facto language of American government and the sole language spoken at home by 80% of Americans age five and older. Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language, and the Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the Russian: Союз Советских Социалистических Республик (help·info), tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, IPA [sɐˈjʊs sɐˈvʲeʦkʲɪx səʦɪ. The British Empire was the most extensive empire An empire involves the extension of a state's sovereignty over external territories. For example, because of the British Empire's territories around the globe, it was often said that "the sun never sets on the British Empire." This article provides a list of the largest empires in world history in world history, which was considered the foremost great power and by 1921, held sway over 25% of the world's population^[20] and controlled about 25% of the Earth's total land area,^[21] while the United States and the Soviet Union grew in power in WWII Albania · Australia · Austria · Azerbaijan · Belarus · Belgium · Brazil · Bulgaria · Burma · Cambodia · Canada · Ceylon (Sri Lanka) · Channel Islands · China · Czechoslovakia · Denmark · Dutch East Indies · Egypt · Estonia · Finland · France · Germany · Gibraltar · Greece · Greenland · Hong Kong · Hungary · Iceland ·.

Characteristics

The criteria of a superpower are not clearly defined^[2] and as a consequence they may differ between sources.

According to Lyman Miller, "The basic components of superpower stature may be measured along four axes of power: military, economic, political, and cultural (or what political scientist Joseph Nye has termed “soft power”).^[1]

In the opinion of Kim Richard Nossal of Queen's University, "generally this term was used to signify a political community that occupied a continental-sized landmass, had a sizable population (relative at least to other major powers); a superordinate economic capacity, including ample indigenous supplies of food and natural resources; enjoyed a high degree of non-dependence on international intercourse; and, most importantly, had a well-developed nuclear capacity (eventually normally defined as second-strike capability)."^[2]

In the opinion of Professor Paul Dukes, "a superpower must be able to conduct a global strategy including the possibility of destroying the world; to command vast economic potential and influence; and to present a universal ideology". Although, "many modifications may be made to this basic definition".^[22] According to Professor June Teufel Dreyer, "A superpower must be able to project its power, soft and hard, globally."^[23]

Cold War

The 1956 Suez Crisis suggested that Britain, financially weakened by two world wars, could not then pursue its foreign policy objectives on an equal footing with the new superpowers without sacrificing convertibility of its reserve currency as a central goal of policy.^[24] As the majority of World War II had been fought far from its national boundaries, the United States had not suffered the industrial destruction or massive civilian casualties that marked the wartime situation of the countries in Europe or Asia.

The war had reinforced the position of the United States as the world's largest long-term creditor nation and its principal supplier of goods; moreover it had built up a strong industrial and technological infrastructure that had greatly advanced its military strength into a primary position on the global stage.^{[citation needed]}

Despite attempts to create multinational coalitions or legislative bodies (such as the United Nations), it became increasingly clear that the superpowers had very different visions about what the post-war world ought to look like, and after the withdrawal of British aid to Greece in 1947 the United States took the lead in containing Soviet expansion in the Cold War.^[25]

The two countries opposed each other ideologically, politically, militarily, and economically. The Soviet Union promoted the ideology of communism, whilst the United States promoted the ideologies of liberal democracy and the free market. This was reflected in the Warsaw Pact and NATO military alliances, respectively, as most of Europe became aligned either with the United States or the Soviet Union. These alliances implied that these two nations were part of an emerging bipolar world, in contrast with a previously multipolar world.^{[citation needed]}

The Soviet Union and the United States fulfilled the superpower criteria in the following ways:

The idea that the Cold War period revolved around only two blocs, or even only two nations, has been challenged by some scholars in the post-Cold War era, who have noted that the bipolar world only exists if one ignores all of the various movements and conflicts that occurred without influence from either of the two superpowers.^{[citation needed]} Additionally, much of the conflict between the superpowers was fought in "proxy wars", which more often than not involved issues more complex than the standard Cold War oppositions.^{[citation needed]}

After the Soviet Union disintegrated in the early 1990s, the term hyperpower began to be applied to the United States, as the sole remaining superpower of the Cold War era.^[2] This term, coined by French foreign minister Hubert Védrine in the 1990s, is controversial and the validity of classifying the United States in this way is disputed. One notable opponent to this theory, Samuel P. Huntington, rejects this theory in favor of a multipolar balance of power.

Other International Relations theorists, such as Henry Kissinger, theorize that because the threat of the Soviet Union no longer exists to formerly American-dominated regions such as Japan and Western Europe, American influence is only declining since the end of the Cold War, because such regions no longer need protection or have necessarily similar foreign policies as the United States.^[33]

Post Cold War (1991-present)

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 that ended the Cold War, the post-Cold War world was sometimes considered as a unipolar world,^[34][35] with the United States as the world's sole remaining superpower.^[36] In the words of Samuel P. Huntington, "The United States, of course, is the sole state with preeminence in every domain of power — economic, military, diplomatic, ideological, technological, and cultural — with the reach and capabilities to promote its interests in virtually every part of the world."^[37]

Experts argue that this older assessment of global politics was too simplified, in part because of the difficulty in classifying the European Union at its current stage of development. Others argue that the notion of a superpower is outdated, considering complex global economic interdependencies, and propose that the world is multipolar.^{[8][9][10][11]} According to Samuel P. Huntington, "There is now only one superpower. But that does not mean that the world is unipolar. A unipolar system would have one superpower, no significant major powers, and many minor powers." Huntington thinks, "Contemporary international politics" ... "is instead a strange hybrid, a uni-multipolar system with one superpower and several major powers."^[37]

Additionally, there has been some recent speculation that the United States is declining in relative power as the rest of the world rises to match its levels of economic and technological development. Citing economic hardships, Cold War allies becoming less dependent on the United States, a declining dollar, and the rise of other great powers around the world, some experts have suggested the possibility of the United States losing its superpower status in the distant future or even at the present.^{[3][38][39][40]}

Potential superpowers

Academics and other qualified commentators sometimes identify potential superpowers thought to have a strong likelihood of being recognized as superpowers in the 21st century. The record of such predictions has not been perfect. For example in the 1980s some commentators thought Japan would become a superpower, due to its large GDP and high economic growth at the time.^[42] However the prediction has not come to fruition.

Due to their large markets, growing military strength, and economic potential and influence in international affairs, the Federative Republic of Brazil,^[43][44][45] the People's Republic of China,^[46][47] the European Union,^[48][49] the Republic of India,^[50] and the Russian Federation^[51][52][53], are among the powers which are most often cited as having the ability to influence future world politics and reach the status of superpower in the 21st century. While some believe one (or more) of these countries will replace the United States as a superpower, others believe they will rise to rival, but not replace, the United States.^[34]

Others have argued that the notion of a "superpower" is increasingly anachronistic in the 21st century as increased global integration and interdependence makes the projection of a superpower hard.(Aberkane 2010) ^[54]

References

1. ^ ^{a b c} www.stanford.edu
2. ^ ^{a b c d e} "Analyzing American Power in the Post-Cold War Era". http://post.queensu.ca/~nossalk/papers/hyperpower.htm. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
3. ^ ^{a b} Unger J (2008), U.S. no longer superpower, now a besieged global power, scholars say University of Illinois
4. ^ The Guardian by James Denselow– April 22, 2010 cite: “China is the superpower”[1]
5. ^ New York Times by Ronald Steel professor of international relations August 24, 2008 (Superpower Reborn)[2]
6. ^ The Globalist – June 2, 2010 cite: “An Insecure Foothold for the United States; Russia is certainly still a superpower comparable only to the United States”[3]
7. ^ Waving Goodbye to Hegemony
8. ^ ^{a b} "The Multipolar World Vs. The Superpower". http://www.theglobalist.com/DBWeb/printStoryId.aspx?StoryId=3553. Retrieved 2006-06-10.
9. ^ ^{a b} "The Multipolar Unilateralist". The Washington Post. 5 March 2006. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/03/03/AR2006030302055.html. Retrieved 2006-06-10.
10. ^ ^{a b} "No Longer the "Lone" Superpower". http://www.globalpolicy.org/empire/challenges/competitors/2005/0315chinapower.htm. Retrieved 2006-06-11.
11. ^ ^{a b} "The war that may end the age of superpower". http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/ED05Ak01.html. Retrieved 2006-06-11.
12. ^ ^{a b} Angus Maddison (2003). The World Economy: Historical Statistics, OECD, Paris.
13. ^ www.heritage.org
14. ^ www.blackwellpublishing.com
15. ^ KAMEN, H., Spain's Road To Empire: The Making Of A World Power, 1492-1763, 2003, Penguin, 640p.
16. ^ Edwards, John (2005). Isabella: Catholic Queen and Madam of Spain. Tempus Publishing. ISBN 0752433318.
17. ^ Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Mark Greengrass, The Ancien Régime 1998 Wiley-Blackwell, page 512
18. ^ Steven Englund, Napoleon: A Political Life, 2005, Harvard University Press, page 254
19. ^ www.casaasia.es
20. ^ Angus Maddison. The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective (p. 98, 242). OECD, Paris, 2001.
21. ^ To Rule the Earth..., hostkingdom.net, Bibliography, Accessed March 11, 2007
22. ^ abe.etailer.dpsl.net
23. ^ www.fpri.org
24. ^ Adam Klug and Gregor W. Smith, 'Suez and Sterling', Explorations in Economic History, Vol. 36, No. 3 (July 1999), pp. 181-203.
25. ^ Robert Frazier, 'Did Britain Start the Cold War? Bevin and the Truman Doctrine', Historical Journal, Vol. 27, No. 3 (Sep., 1984), pp. 715-727.
26. ^ ^{a b} Library of Congress Country Studies
27. ^ http://www.theodora.com/wfb1989/united_states/united_states_geography.html
28. ^ www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/spending.htm
29. ^ Gates, Robert M. "A Balanced Strategy: Reprogramming the Pentagon or a New Age". Council On Foreign Relations. http://fullaccess.foreignaffairs.org/20090101faessay88103-p20/robert-m-gates/a-balanced-strategy.html. Retrieved 8 December 2008.
30. ^ Weighing the US Navy Defense & Security Analysis, Volume 17, Issue 3 December 2001 , pages 259 - 265
31. ^ "1990 CIA World Factbook". Central Intelligence Agency. http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact90/world12.txt. Retrieved 2009-10-12.
32. ^ www.census.gov
33. ^ Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy, p. 24,26
34. ^ ^{a b} Charles Krauthammer, The Unipolar Moment, Foreign Policy Magazine (1991).
35. ^ www.gaikoforum.com
36. ^ Country profile: United States of America, BBC News, Accessed March 11, 2007
37. ^ ^{a b} www-stage.foreignaffairs.org
38. ^ Seizing American supremacy
39. ^ The Coming End of the American Superpower
40. ^ U.S.: A Losing Superpower?
41. ^ Country profile: United States of America, BBC News, Accessed July 22, 2008
42. ^ time.com 1988 article "Japan From Superrich To Superpower"
43. ^ http://cornellsun.com/section/news/content/2009/11/01/alumna-analyzes-brazil%E2%80%99s-emergence
44. ^ While the US Looks Eastward Brazil Is Emerging as a Nuclear Superpower
45. ^ Brazil is becoming an economic and political superpower
46. ^ US-China Institute :: news & features :: china as a global power
47. ^ Visions of China, CNN Specials, Accessed March 11, 2007
48. ^ John McCormick,(2007). The European Superpower. Palgrave Macmillan.
49. ^ Europe: the new superpower by Mark Leonard, Irish Times, Accessed March 11, 2007
50. ^ India Rising | Newsweek International | Newsweek.com
51. ^ "Russia: A superpower rises again - CNN.com". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/europe/12/12/russia.oil/index.html. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
52. ^ Coughlin, Con (13 April 2007). "Russia on the march - again". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml?xml=/opinion/2007/04/13/do1303.xml. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
53. ^ Russia in the 21st Century - Cambridge University Press
54. ^ http://www.sens-public.org/IMG/pdf/SensPublic_IAberkane_guerre_dans_la_geopolitique_moderne.pdf

Bibliography

• Belt, Don (2004). "Europe's Big Gamble". National Geographic. pp. 54–65.
• Brzezinski, Zbigniew (1997). The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Imperatives. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02726-1.
• Fox, William (1944). The Super-powers: the United States, Britain, and the Soviet union—their responsibility for peace. Harcourt, Brace a. Co.
• Kamen, Henry (2003). Spain's Road To Empire: The Making Of A World Power, 1492-1763. Penguin. pp. 640p..
• Kennedy, Paul (1988). The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. ISBN 0-679-72019-7.
• McCormick, John, John (2007). The European Superpower. Palgrave Macmillan.
• Todd, Emanuel (200X). After the Empire — The Breakdown of the American Order.
• Rosefielde, Steven (2005) (PDF). Russia in the 21st Century: The Prodigal Superpower. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521836786. http://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/36784/excerpt/9780521836784_excerpt.pdf. Retrieved 2007-10-07.
• Erik Ringmar, "The Recognition Game: Soviet Russia Against the West," Cooperation & Conflict, 37:2, 2002. pp. 115–36. -- an explanation of the relations between the superpowers in the 20th century based on the notion of recognition.

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